The History Of The Electric Guitar Film Studies Essay

The History Of The Electric Guitar Film Studies Essay Contemporary music can be either loved or hated, listened with pleasure or suffered with a heavy teeth, praised or blamed. However, neither supporters nor opponents of modern jazz, rock and rap would deny that the queen of modern music electric guitar is an important invention of the 20th century. Thanks to the emergence of electric guitar, there appeared such styles rock and roll, hard rock, heavy metal, psychedelic rock, alternative, punk, grunge and hundreds of other types and styles, totally different, but united by one thing the sound of electric guitar. The electric guitar completely changed the world of contemporary music, and we do not know how it could look like, if in the far 1924 the pickup had not been invented. There appeared hundreds of new companies specializing on the production of electric guitars, such as the Music Man, Ibanez, Jackson, BS Rich; and all of them are based on the findings and ideas presented by George Bishampom, Paul Barth, Adolf Rickenbacker, Lloyd Loher, Les Paul, Leo Fender and Ted McCarthy. Precisely thanks to these people, the contemporary music is such as we know it. Electric guitar is a kind of guitar with the pickup that converts vibrations of metal strings into electric current oscillations. The signal from the pickups can be processed to produce various sound effects and then amplified for playback through the speakers. Some believe that the electric guitar is made of plastic or metal, but in fact it is usually made of wood. The most common materials are alder, ash, mahogany, maple. As the plates on the bar rosewood, ebony and maple are used. The most common are six-string electric guitars. Its better to start telling the history of the electric guitar invention, by saying that there are many styles of music, which are not even impossible without this instrument. In some directions and styles it plays a dominant role, we mean rock and roll and its derivatives up to the Heavy, as well as Doom / Death and Black Metal. Without guitars all of the above are impossible. Electric guitar is used in several other musical styles in varying degrees. In addition, the musical direction which has found electric guitar can exist without it. We are talking about the blues. In the early twentieth century, the acoustic guitar has become a full member of dance bands. Numerous American jazz and blues bands in the 1920s and 1930s used acoustic guitar, but it almost could not be heard, therefore, it was on the post of a rhythm instrument. It did not satisfy audience and musicians. Experiments on gaining derived sounds from the guitar began. Inventors, as usual, can to help. The first known experiment with amplification of guitar sound with the help of electricity is related to 1924 when Lloyd Loar (engineer and inventor who worked in the company of Gibson) invented the pickup, a fixed oscillation of the resonator box stringed instruments. However, his invention failed on the market. In 1931, George Beauchamp and Adolph Rickenbacker invented an electromagnetic pickup in which an electric pulse running through the winding of the magnet, created an electromagnetic field, which amplifies the signal from the vibrating strings. When their instrument appeared, it was immediately called  «frying pan », because firstly, the case was all-metal. Secondly, by its form the tool reminded the pan with a disproportionately long handle neck. But in the end it was the first viable and competitive electric guitar. The success of these first models prompted Gibson to create his (now legendary) model ES-150. The first electric Hawaiian-style guitar from the Ro-Pat-In (later Rickenbacker) appeared on the U.S. market in 1932. By the end of 1930 many experimenters have begun to experiment and build pickups in a more traditional looking Spanish guitars with hollow shells. But they met trouble in the form of resonance interference (feedback), distortion and other extraneous noise. In the end, that problem was solved with the help of double counter-winding, which extinguished unwanted signal. But first, musicians and engineers had tried to solve the problem differently: they put all sorts of rags and scraps of newspaper in the resonator box to get rid of unnecessary fluctuations and pickups. The most radical option was suggested by guitarist and engineer Les Paul he just made a deck for guitar monolithic. Unlike pans, however, the deck of Les Paul was made of wood (pine). And it was called The Log. For pickup Les Paul used the parts from the phone, and, ordinary piece of wood as the body. Due to the fact that the sound was amplified by the electronics, acoustic resonator was not needed anymore. When he first appeared in public his instrument looked like for something strange. Finally, to appease the public Les Paul attached body Spanish guitar to bars. Other engineers began to experiment with solid or nearly solid piece of wood. In 1940, Paul Bigsby and Leo Fender were doing that. By 1950, the company founded by Fender already produced a guitar named Esquire, followed by a Broadcaster, then Telecaster, and in 1954 the world saw the first Stratocaster. Since then, the electric guitar became massively produced and became an integral part of modern music. Electric guitar is the purest product of scientific and technological revolution. The guitar masters of the past were changing the sound of instrument, experimenting with its design and materials it is made of. Modern Torreses modify only the audio signal coming from the sensor to the amplifier. They deal with the frequency converter and chips, resulting in experimental sounds, that dont sound as guitar. Only the list of effects that can be achieved when playing the electric guitar, using the so-called gadgets, can take a couple of paragraphs. Since the sound of electric guitar does not depend on the shape of its body, the designers give it more and more bizarre shapes. It is true, that the most successful variants of the body of electric guitar are patented by manufacturers (electric guitar with the body in the form of a dovetail produces, for example, by Gibson). Besides Gibson the internationally known are such companies as Fender, BcRich, Ibanez. Computerization has not bypassed the electric guitar also. Today, there are some models of electric guitars, which are equipped with electronic device, which was made it possible to record the sound of string. The sound is recorded in the form of computer code that goes into digital devices, processing and reproducing sound. Due to such innovations, the guitar sound became especially impressive and simply magical. It is impossible not to be fond of modern jazz, blues, funk, rap, rock and other music when the musical world is ruled by electric guitar. As it was already mentioned, the appearance of the guitar influenced many genres and artists. Electric guitar is widely applied in such kinds of music as jazz, blues, rock, academic music and others. Electric guitar came to jazz in 1937 thanks to Eddie Durham, who (through the orchestra os Jimmy Lunsford) got to Count Basie. Basie, however, preferred to use him as a trombonist. The only guitar solo by Durham eight-tact piece, played on an electric National, tapped only in  «Time Out » (recorded August 9, 1937). Historical was partly restored on March 18, 1938, when a group of Eddie Durham and His Base Four appeared in the New York studio to record two discs for the label Commodore. George Barnes became the first electric blues man when on March 1, 1938 played in the studio first with Big Bill Broonzy, and then with Curtis Jones. In 1939, the electric guitar was taken up by the grandees of the Chicago Blues Big Bill and Tamp Red. Then Memphis Minnie recorded electric version of the song  «Me And My Cauffer », which brought the first big success. Charlie Christian, who gained fame in the years 1939-1942, but could not receive big glory (in 1923 died of tuberculosis), became the third most important star of early electric guitar (after Durham and McAuliffe). Jazz historians say that he became a key figure in the history of modern electric guitar, influencing the work of such masters as Eldon Shemblin, Merle Travis, Hank Thompson, Chet Atkins, Bill Black, Jimmy Bryant, Barney Kessel, Tal Farlow, Wes Montgomery. Simultaneously with the emergence of rock music, electric guitar became a key instrument for rock bands. It sounded on the records of many early rock musicians Elvis Presley, Bill Haley, but a revolutionary impact on the development of rock electric guitar playing techniques was contributed by Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley. Their solo parties and techniques for using the guitar sound in the context of the songs, experimenting with the sound had a major influence on subsequent rock music. In 1960, there appear a number of new discoveries in the use of electric guitars. The celebrated guitarist Jimi Hendrix radically altered views on the guitar sound, creating in every possible way new sounds, using a wide range of effects. First of all, there appeared the first effects pedal of distortion and fuzz, which first were used by garage rock group (Link Wray, The Sonics, The Kinks), and a little later by more popular artists (The Beatles, The Rolling Stones). By the end of the decade musicians begin experimenting with the use of Guitar Canceller in songs (The Velvet Underground), as well as more aggressive and dirty sound. The latter led to the appearance of the genre of hard rock in the 1970s, whose most prominent guitarists were Ritchie Blackmore, Jimmy Page. In 1980, with the development of punk rock and alternative rock, musicians started experimenting with finding new sounds of electric guitars. An important role was played by some groups of the late 70s, for example, Joy Division, whose guitarist Bernard Sumner created not just the rhythm or the solo parts in the traditional sense, but atmospheric soundscapes perceived on a subconscious level. Revolutionary role in the development of rock guitar in 1980s was played by Sonic Youth, whose guitarists Torston Moore and Lee Ranaldo, using non-traditional settings and playing techniques, feedbacks, all sorts of strange guitar effects, could create a unique sound, which became the basis for all subsequent evolution of rock. Such groups as The Jesus and Mary Chain, Big Black, The Jesus Lizard, Pixies, Nirvana used the work of Sonic Youth, creating the genre of noise rock. It gave the development to the subgenre shoegazing, in which the sound of electric guitars was the most distant from the usual standards. The songs of shoegazing groups impose a huge number of parties, which sometimes sounded like synthesizers, traditional guitar riffs on the back burner, and all together they created a very strange and revolutionary effect. Brian Eno called that sound pop music of the future. Leading groups of the genre are My Bloody Valentine (guitarists Kevin Shields and Debbie Googe), Slowdive, Ride, Pale Saints. At the same time in the 80 years, basing on the folk-rock the 60s a softer guitar sound appeared, it gave multiple parties Symphony effect when imposing. A huge role in the development of such a sound was played by Johnny Marr from The Smiths. Electric guitar was very popular among composers of classical music also. In the 1950-1960s, many composers of classical music began to use electric guitar in their compositions. Among these works Gruppen by Karlheinz Stockhausen (1955-1957), String Trio by Donald Erb (1966), The Possibility of a New Work for Electric Guitar by Morton Feldman (1966). Among the later works of this kind there are MASS by Leonard Bernstein (1971), Electric Counterpoint by Steve Reich (1987), Miserere by Arvo Pà ¤rt (1989-1992), Symphony à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾- 4 by Lepo Sumer (1992) with electric guitar solo in the third part. In the 1980-1990-ies even more young composers began to write compositions for electric guitar. Among them there are Steven Mackey, Nick Didkovsky, Scott Johnson and Tim Brady. Experimental composers, such as Glenn Branca and Rhys Chethem have written several symphonic compositions for electric guitars, which sometimes required up to 100 guitars. Electric guitar made famous a lot of outstanding musicians. Jimi Hendrix, an American guitarist, singer-songwriter and record producer was one of them. He is considered to be the greatest electric guitarist in musical history and one of the most leading musicians of his period in different genres. The main his genres were psychedelic rock, hard rock, blues-rock, acid rock, funk-rock. A lot of his compositions and songs can be considered as vivid examples of outstanding, prominent performance of electric guitar. His album Electric Ladyland (1968) is commonly considered The Jimi Hendrix Experiences greatest achievement and focuses attention on his unbelievable abilities as singer, musician. One of the most interesting songs in the album is Gypsy Eyes that is based on the field holler. The song is about Jimis mother. The author had major issues with his mom abandoning him as a child. Jimi nearly romanticized her as being an excellent motherand he really wants to find out if she loves him. The genre of the song is: psychedelic rock, funk rock, blues-rock. This song is followed by complex and original structures. It is full of sizzling, aggressive guitar sound and can be understood as a slice of blues and psychedelic features. Gypsy Eyes start out with a sole bass drum beating, then a fast hammer on pulloff continuation, to bass note to a high melody. While listening, there appears a real magic, voodoo gypsy feel to it that draws the listener in. The song is based on a standard, ancient blues field holler, with Jimi Hendrix creating some great synergy between his vocal and the lead guitar riff. In fact, the song is loaded with a collection of riffs, and Hendrix neatly compiles them together in one song. Utilizing the recording studio as an instrument, Hendrixs overdubbing technique reaches an early peak here, as the multiple guitar parts swirl around each other in spectacular fashion. In addition, the flanging/phasing effects are also a part of the arrangement, and by proxy the song itself. Characterizing the song, there can be said that the song features guitar themes that float between left and right channels. Richard Middleton remarks that licks in rock music are often used all the way through a formula and variations technique and that the composition Gypsy Eyes is put together from variants of five stock ideasfamiliar from other recordings in the same style (Middleton, 1990). Drum lick A Drum lick B A complex of riffs on guitar and bass guitar A basic melodic falling pattern, using the notes of the pentatonic scale A characteristic guitar effecty, the attacked single note with long decay and glissando fall (Middleton, 1990). He concludes that the combination and variations of these formulae are many and highly imaginative. But the basic formulae are so simple that the recording could well have been worked out in performance (Middleton, 1990). Jimi Hendrix wrote very different music, for example in his composition Purple Haze from the album Are You Experienced (1966), is known for its use of the Hendrix chord (dominant 7 # 9) that is played as the first chord right after the introduction. Such chord structure was regularly used in jazz by such musicians as Horace Silver at the beginning of 1960s, but was not implemented in rock on a regular basis. The beginning of the composition is remarkable for its well-known use of the distinctive tritone interval; it was often used by jazz artists. It is sounded when Hendrix plays an E7 #9 (low to high: E, G#, D, G) on the guitar while the bass plays an E (and its octave);( Rooksby, 2002) such a dissonant interval was unusual in popular music of the time. The guitar solo is played through an Octavia, an effects pedal that increases notes by one octave. The effect was developed by Roger Mayer, an acoustical and electronics engineer, and Mayer claims he made it in cooperation with Jimi Hendrix (Octavia). A dubbed guitar part using the Octavia can also be noticed in the outro. concl Electric guitar is a very well known or may be, even the most famous musical instrument in the world. Without this musical instrument people could not appreciate the talent and creativity of great musicians of our time. Thanks to the emergence of electric guitars, rich sound processing, as well as analog and digital processors allowed to change the sound of classical guitar incredibly. The appearance of an entirely new electronic sound foreshadowed the emergence of great virtuosos of the music world. Such legends of rock music, and simply outstanding personalities like Jimmy Hendrix, Jimmy Page (Led Zeppelin), Jeff Beck, BB King, Keith Richards (Rolling Stones ) fairly occupy a special place in the hall of fame of the world cultural enrichments and deserve respect. Thanks to the emergence of electric guitar, there appeared such styles rock and roll, hard rock, heavy metal, psychedelic rock, alternative, punk, grunge and hundreds of other types and styles. The electric guitar complete ly changed the world of contemporary music, making it brighter and more interesting. The electric guitar has been the most popular musical instrument for more than a half of a century and its popularity seems to be immortal.

Youth Gang Prevention

Youth Gang Prevention EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Gang prevention, intervention and suppression for youth at risk and gang members are strategies for addressing the recent increases in youth and gang related problems in the city of Norfolk, Virginia. State and local policymakers as well as citizens are concerned about public safety and want to avoid a continued increase in gang activity and membership. An effective response to the problems of youth must be built on a thorough understanding of the problem. There is an important role for Norfolk State University (NSU) to assist the City of Norfolk in addressing the problem and designing an effective program built on the strategies of prevention, intervention and suppression. This white paper outlines such a program and related strategies, which we believe will be a successful response to youth at risk and gang members. This program is focused in the six communities adjacent and next to the Norfolk State Campus, and is designed to support and enhance community organizations and families in their effort to address youth at risk and reduce violence. The program includes the strategies of prevention, intervention and suppression, and is highlighted by a five point component structure. These five points are as follows: 1)} build a solid community social network of community organizations, churches, government agencies, police units, local businesses, schools, and so forth,. 2) a range of services/workshops/training and educational opportunities offered and available to the residents of the communities identified by key street workers, clergy, parents, police, and other youth. ) the utilization of key family and ex gang members in working directly with youth and gang members with experience in addressing such problems. 4) the creation of an educational ladder designed to provide alternative patterns of behavior and provide opportunities for the youth and the parents. 5) an evaluation plan focused on determining which aspects of the program are most effective and cost beneficial. ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM This program expands on the di scussions held on campus. It builds on the range of services and workshops provided by NSU and other groups working in this area and directly with NSU. This program is intended to include what is currently available and expands the capability of folks within NSU so as to support and strengthen families and youth in their development. It is very much intended to assist in diverting youth into alternative patterns of behavior and to reduce the need and/or preference for violence. FIRST COMPONENT The proposed project has five components. The first is to build a network of social, economic and religious organizations in the six communities adjacent to Norfolk State University. Such a network is critical so that information, brochures and direct contact can be made with community residents and organizational leaders. We will most likely need to meet with them most likely in their habitat so as to explain the intent of the program and what we would have them to contribute to the overall effort. Most important would be for them to help distribute the information we prepare, be able to answer basic questions or connect residents with key personnel in the project. We would very much like for some to consider holding workshops and/or educational programs in their facilities. The type of locales that we are considering would be the public and private schools, the cChurches, recreation and community centers, hair salons and barbershops, and any other places where people gather. The work on our part would be to meet face to face with the managers/ workers/ owners and discuss our effort. We would show them our brochures and other information and leave them with the names of two or three people to call in case they need to contact us, as well as maintaining consistent contact over a period of time so that they will understand the need to address the youth related problems. SECOND COMPONENT The second component would be the somewhat detailed and clearly spelled out range of services/workshops/training/and educational opportunities available through our project. The set of services we intend to use have been provided for several years by the Virginia Gang Prevention Program, which includes God’s X Gangsters. They are familiar with and have provided some services in the areas we intend to serve. NSU has been partnering with them for a little over three years, have been the site of a couple of conferences, and it is where many meetings of the group have been held all within the School of Social Work and NSU’s Brambleton Center of late. more lately its Brambleton Center. In this context we envision developing a peer mentoring program in the community, such as gang prevention for youth, gang intervention for youth, intensive gang intervention services, group/6-week certificate, gang awareness for parentsparents’ in-home/group, intensive in-home services, train the trainers, and certificate training for trainers. These workshops and training programs have already been provided, but we will need to do it in a consistent, systematic and developmental manner, and make certain that we cover a community. Family Systems Inc is another community based agency which serves the youth and their families. It has some interesting programs already being provided to youth such as an entrepenurialentrepreneurial group and a youth skills group. It has a staff well connected to youth, families, courts and police, and would significantly provide additional services to this program. There are also other treatment opportunities for parents and youth when such services are indicated. We are looking at the risk factors that God’s X Gangsters haves learned are associated with gang involved and youth at risk. These risk factors are failure in school, family problems, substance abuse, pattern behaviors and â€Å"conduct† problems, gang membership and gun possession, and incidents of violence. These are important indicators to make others aware of what the program will address and to make certain that these youngsters need special attention. THIRD COMPONENT One of the most important new services we will embrace is the creation of an educational ladder. This ladder would form the basis of creating opportunities and provide a source of hope for parents, teachers, and youth. In this context, we would work with the youth to determine their needs, whether it be learning to read and write, reading comprehension and literacy, assisting in obtaining a GED, moving into learning a trade, going to community college, or coming to NSU. This opportunity ladder would assist providers of service with a chance for growth in addition to the suppression model and the reinforcement of our treatment model so prevalent in addressing such problems. We envision that this type of service would also be made available to family members, so they can be a source of encouragement for the youth and others. The full range of services we are capable of providing include, anger management/conflict resolution, one-on-one social mentoring, social skills training, goal setting, attitude formation, empathy development, problem solving skills, bully prevention/violence reduction and substance abuse awareness and reduction. These courses/workshops would be addressed in weekly modules in addition to the initial six week training module where the overall program is introduced and discussed. FOURTH COMPONENT In this component we want to make it easy and possible for people to sign up for these services and/or workshops. This will likely be accomplished when the information is distributed in the community organizations and commercial operations. There will be a checklist which we will use to contact those who complete them and indicate what they would like us to addressed. It is likely that we might see several services or courses checked off and we would maintain a list of needed service as well as a mailing list of folks for us to contact for over time. We would also have a blank where one would like for the services to be held, and we would go to those locations. It may be that we would hold some classes in barbershops, which would be an excellent resource because we want to address people in their own back yard and then encourage them to go to other locations when they feel comfortable. It is very likely that we will incorporate the interns in social work and in the Psy. D. programs, under supervision of professional faculty and other treatment professionals. The interns would assist in organizing after school educational and recreational programs as well as assisting in the development and implementation of service learning efforts. They would help in distributing the program information and when indicated would co-lead groups. In other situations, they would help with short- term intervention, make referrals and bring attention to youth at potential for trouble. In another context, we have worked with and used Liberty Counseling services and we would likely use them as a case permits. We intend to use the NSU Counseling Center when appropriate and on a case-by-case basis. The services that NSU uses would be based at the Brambleton Center, where it is envisioned that the project would be housed. It will be necessary and important for the NSU security personnel to work closely with the City of Norfolk Police Department in order to coordinate activities. This collaborative effort is key as we are addressing the six communities surrounding NSU. One important feature of this coordinated effort would be to identify youth at risk and gang members for our own work force to make either the first or follow up contact as we seek to reduce violence, rather than seek arrest and adjudication. In these contacts where an assessment of the problem would be made, it is critical that our work force have the service possibilities and the educational opportunities readily available. FIFTH COMPONENT The fifth component would be evaluation. Such an evaluation would be based on a developmental model where we would constantly usinguse the data to enhance the specific courses, etc. We would work with our Assessment unit to develop evaluative feedback information for the programs provided so that we can make well-informed decisions about our overall effort. We would be particularly interested in determining what works, what is most cost-effective, whatere are the favorable locations, and so forth. This information is critical if we are to show success. use money wisely. One last but not least point is that while a very effective project can be developed and implemented we would need a source of funds. This is not easy to note particularly when the economy is so poor and our University and City are in economic turmoil;, however, we will need to explore funding for the project. To date, Prof. Banks has agreed to work with Prof. S. Lowe and Prof. J. Robinson on developing the educational ladder, Interim Director D. Sanderlin and Mr. Turan Smith from the Brambleton Center is are working on identifying key community resources for the network, and Pastor B. Emory is coordinating the service component of the project. These folks have agreed to work as part of a team to design an effective project associated and driven via NSU. Chief Walker, Dr. Coleman and I will work together to coordinate the overall project. CONCLUSION This project incorporates the strategies of prevention, intervention and suppression in a program designed to deal effectively with youth at risk and gang members in the six communities surrounding Norfolk State University. The program is built on a five point component system which is well integrated so that each contributes to and strengthens the others. It is also community based relying on the strengths and resources of these communities, in addition to the resources of NSU and its educational thrust and extensive community and outreach effort. The evaluation effort is intended to provide continuous feedback to the leadership of NSU, the leadership of the City of Norfolk, and others within the communities, as well as contributing to the understanding of addressing the problems of youth at risk.

Office of Strategy Management

Office of Strategy Management In the article â€Å"Office of Strategy Management†, Kaplan and Ditto reveal that there is a disconnection amongst companies between strategy formulation and strategy execution. On average, 95% of a company's employees are unaware of, or do not understand, its strategy. They say that there is a gap in many large organizations between strategy formulation and execution, between ambitious goals and actual performance. The authors submit that if employees are unaware of the strategy, they cannot help the organization implement it effectively. Kaplan and Norton say it doesn’t have to be like that. They have studied companies that achieved performance breakthroughs by adopting the Balanced Scorecard and its associated tools to help them better communicate strategy to their employees, and to guide and monitor the execution of that strategy. While some companies have achieved better, longer-lasting improvements than others, the organizations that have managed to sustain their strategic focus have typically established a new corporate-level unit to oversee all activities related to an office of strategy management (OSM). The OSM coordinates an array of tasks. The function of the OSM is to create and manage the scorecard, align the organization, review the strategy, develop strategy, communicate strategy, manage strategic initiatives, and integrate strategic priorities with other support functions. They assert that the OSM does not do all the work, but it facilitates the processes so that strategy is executed in a more integrated way across the organization. They say that an OSM is applicable with every organization whether it is used or not. I agree with the authors the OSM sets the framework to ensure good communication throughout the company. An OSM can improve a strategy execution, and the communication of that strategy, and to ignore any of the process that an OSM seeks to achieve for an organization could lead to its failure. If the company is working fine it might be necessary, but some form of an OSM might be in place. However an OSM is a must for companies where the communication and the execution of a strategy are poor.

What Is a Hydronium Ion

The hydronium ion or hydronium is the name given to the H3Ocation, derived from the protonation of water. The hydronium ion is the simplest type of oxonium ion. It is produced when an Arrhenius acid dissolves in water. Hydronium is also abundant in the interstellar medium and tails of comets. Hydronium Ion and pH In chemistry, pH is calculated as the ratio of hydronium ions to hydroxide (OH-) ions. When the hydrogen ion (H) concentration is discussed, its actually hydronium. The auto-dissociation of water at equilibrium is: 2 H2O â‡Å'  OH−   H3O In pure water, the number of hydroxide and hydronium ions is equal and the pH is neutral or 7. Sources Meister, Erich; Willeke, Martin; Angst, Werner; Togni, Antonio; Walde, Peter (2014). Confusing Quantitative Descriptions of Brà ¸nsted-Lowry Acid-Base Equilibria in Chemistry Textbooks – A Critical Review and Clarifications for Chemical Educators. Helv. Chim. Acta. 97 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1002/hlca.201300321Rauer, H (1997). Ion composition and solar wind interaction: Observations of comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp). Earth, Moon, and Planets. 79: 161–178. doi:10.1023/A:1006285300913997EMP...79..161R. doi:10.1023/A:100628530091